Cognitive+biases

Here is a list of cognitive biases: link

In the discussion section please create a post titled with a type of bias, then give an example from your life, tv, movies, books, the news, your imagination, etc. and click post. If the type of bias that you want to do is already created, then reply to it rather than create a duplicate thread.

Please post for three types. Here is the chart from Wikipedia

== ] Social biases [ [|edit] ] == Most of these biases are labeled as [|attributional biases].
 * ~ Name ||~ Description ||
 * ** [|Ambiguity effect] ** || The tendency to avoid options for which missing information makes the probability seem "unknown." [|[8]] ||
 * ** [|Anchoring] **or**focalism** || The tendency to rely too heavily, or "anchor," on one trait or piece of information when making decisions. [|[9]][|[10]] ||
 * ** [|Attentional bias] ** || The tendency of our perception to be affected by our recurring thoughts. [|[11]] ||
 * ** [|Availability heuristic] ** || The tendency to overestimate the likelihood of events with greater "availability" in memory, which can be influenced by how recent the memories are or how unusual or emotionally charged they may be. [|[12]] ||
 * ** [|Availability cascade] ** || A self-reinforcing process in which a collective belief gains more and more plausibility through its increasing repetition in public discourse (or "repeat something long enough and it will become true"). [|[13]] ||
 * ** [|Backfire effect] ** || When people react to disconfirming evidence by strengthening their beliefs. [|[14]] ||
 * ** [|Bandwagon effect] ** || The tendency to do (or believe) things because many other people do (or believe) the same. Related to [|groupthink] and [|herd behavior] . [|[15]] ||
 * ** [|Base rate fallacy] **or **base rate neglect** || The tendency to ignore base rate information (generic, general information) and focus on specific information (information only pertaining to a certain case). [|[16]] ||
 * ** [|Belief bias] ** || An effect where someone's evaluation of the logical strength of an argument is biased by the believability of the conclusion. [|[17]] ||
 * ** [|Bias blind spot] ** || The tendency to see oneself as less biased than other people, or to be able to identify more cognitive biases in others than in oneself. [|[18]] ||
 * **Cheerleader effect** || The tendency for people to appear more attractive in a group than in isolation. [|[19]] ||
 * ** [|Choice-supportive bias] ** || The tendency to remember one's choices as better than they actually were. [|[20]] ||
 * ** [|Clustering illusion] ** || The tendency to over-expect small runs, streaks, or clusters in large samples of random data (that is, seeing phantom patterns). [|[10]] ||
 * ** [|Confirmation bias] ** || The tendency to search for, interpret, focus on and remember information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions. [|[21]] ||
 * ** [|Congruence bias] ** || The tendency to test hypotheses exclusively through direct testing, instead of testing possible alternative hypotheses. [|[10]] ||
 * ** [|Conjunction fallacy] ** || The tendency to assume that specific conditions are more probable than general ones. [|[22]] ||
 * **Conservatism**or**regressive bias** || A certain state of mind wherein high values and high likelihoods are overestimated while low values and low likelihoods are underestimated. [|[23]][|[24]][|[25]] [// [|unreliable source?] //] ||
 * ** [|Conservatism (Bayesian)] ** || The tendency to insufficiently [|revise one's belief] when presented with new evidence. [|[23]][|[26]][|[27]] ||
 * ** [|Contrast effect] ** || The enhancement or reduction of a certain perception's stimuli when compared with a recently observed, contrasting object. [|[28]] ||
 * ** [|Curse of knowledge] ** || When better-informed people find it extremely difficult to think about problems from the perspective of lesser-informed people. [|[29]] ||
 * ** [|Decoy effect] ** || Preferences for either option A or B changes in favor of option B when option C is presented, which is similar to option B but in no way better. ||
 * ** [|Denomination effect] ** || The tendency to spend more money when it is denominated in small amounts (e.g. coins) rather than large amounts (e.g. bills). [|[30]] ||
 * ** [|Distinction bias] ** || The tendency to view two options as more dissimilar when evaluating them simultaneously than when evaluating them separately. [|[31]] ||
 * ** [|Duration neglect] ** || The neglect of the duration of an episode in determining its value ||
 * ** [|Empathy gap] ** || The tendency to underestimate the influence or strength of feelings, in either oneself or others. ||
 * ** [|Endowment effect] ** || The fact that people often demand much more to give up an object than they would be willing to pay to acquire it. [|[32]] ||
 * **Essentialism** || Categorizing people and things according to their essential nature, in spite of variations.[// [|dubious] – [|discuss] //] [|[33]] ||
 * **Exaggerated expectation** || Based on the estimates, real-world evidence turns out to be less extreme than our expectations (conditionally inverse of the conservatism bias).[// [|unreliable source?] //] [|[23]][|[34]] ||
 * ** [|Experimenter's] or [|expectation bias] ** || The tendency for experimenters to believe, certify, and publish data that agree with their expectations for the outcome of an experiment, and to disbelieve, discard, or downgrade the corresponding weightings for data that appear to conflict with those expectations. [|[35]] ||
 * ** [|Functional fixedness] ** || Limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used. ||
 * ** [|Focusing effect] ** || The tendency to place too much importance on one aspect of an event. [|[36]] ||
 * ** [|Forer effect] **or**Barnum effect** || The observation that individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. This effect can provide a partial explanation for the widespread acceptance of some beliefs and practices, such as astrology, fortune telling, graphology, and some types of personality tests. ||
 * ** [|Framing effect] ** || Drawing different conclusions from the same information, depending on how or by whom that information is presented. ||
 * ** [|Frequency illusion] ** || The illusion in which a word, a name or other thing that has recently come to one's attention suddenly seems to appear with improbable frequency shortly afterwards (see also [|recency illusion] ). [|[37]] ||
 * ** [|Gambler's fallacy] ** || The tendency to think that future probabilities are altered by past events, when in reality they are unchanged. Results from an erroneous conceptualization of the [|law of large numbers] . For example, "I've flipped heads with this coin five times consecutively, so the chance of tails coming out on the sixth flip is much greater than heads." ||
 * ** [|Hard-easy effect] ** || Based on a specific level of task difficulty, the confidence in judgments is too conservative and not extreme enough [|[23]][|[38]][|[39]][|[40]] ||
 * ** [|Hindsight bias] ** || Sometimes called the "I-knew-it-all-along" effect, the tendency to see past events as being predictable [|[41]] at the time those events happened. ||
 * ** [|Hostile media effect] ** || The tendency to see a media report as being biased, owing to one's own strong partisan views. ||
 * ** [|Hot-hand fallacy] ** || The "hot-hand fallacy" (also known as the "hot hand phenomenon" or "hot hand") is the fallacious belief that a person who has experienced success has a greater chance of further success in additional attempts. ||
 * ** [|Hyperbolic discounting] ** || The tendency for people to have a stronger preference for more immediate payoffs relative to later payoffs, where the tendency increases the closer to the present both payoffs are. [|[42]] Also known as current moment bias, present-bias, and related to [|Dynamic inconsistency] . ||
 * ** [|Identifiable victim effect] ** || The tendency to respond more strongly to a single identified person at risk than to a large group of people at risk. [|[43]] ||
 * ** [|IKEA effect] ** || The tendency for people to place a disproportionately high value on objects that they partially assembled themselves, such as furniture from [|IKEA], regardless of the quality of the end result. ||
 * ** [|Illusion of control] ** || The tendency to overestimate one's degree of influence over other external events. [|[44]] ||
 * ** [|Illusion of validity] ** || Belief that furtherly acquired information generates additional relevant data for predictions, even when it evidently does not. [|[45]] ||
 * ** [|Illusory correlation] ** || Inaccurately perceiving a relationship between two unrelated events. [|[46]][|[47]] ||
 * ** [|Impact bias] ** || The tendency to overestimate the length or the intensity of the impact of future feeling states. [|[48]] ||
 * ** [|Information bias] ** || The tendency to seek information even when it cannot affect action. [|[49]] ||
 * ** [|Insensitivity to sample size] ** || The tendency to under-expect variation in small samples ||
 * ** [|Irrational escalation] ** || The phenomenon where people justify increased investment in a decision, based on the cumulative prior investment, despite new evidence suggesting that the decision was probably wrong. Also known as the sunk cost fallacy. ||
 * ** [|Just-world hypothesis] ** || The tendency for people to want to believe that the world is fundamentally just, causing them to rationalize an otherwise inexplicable injustice as deserved by the victim(s). ||
 * ** [|Less-is-better effect] ** || The tendency to prefer a smaller set to a larger set judged separately, but not jointly ||
 * ** [|Loss aversion] ** || "the disutility of giving up an object is greater than the utility associated with acquiring it". [|[50]] (see also [|Sunk cost effects] and endowment effect). ||
 * ** [|Mere exposure effect] ** || The tendency to express undue liking for things merely because of familiarity with them. [|[51]] ||
 * ** [|Money illusion] ** || The tendency to concentrate on the nominal (face value) of money rather than its value in terms of purchasing power. [|[52]] ||
 * ** [|Moral credential effect] ** || The tendency of a track record of non-prejudice to increase subsequent prejudice. ||
 * ** [|Negativity effect] ** || The tendency of people, when evaluating the causes of the behaviors of a person they dislike, to attribute their positive behaviors to the environment and their negative behaviors to the person's inherent nature //or// of young people to be more negative information in the descriptions of others ||
 * ** [|Negativity bias] ** || Psychological phenomenon by which humans have a greater [|recall] of unpleasant memories compared with positive memories. [|[53]] ||
 * ** [|Neglect of probability] ** || The tendency to completely disregard probability when making a decision under uncertainty. [|[54]] ||
 * ** [|Normalcy bias] ** || The refusal to plan for, or react to, a disaster which has never happened before. ||
 * ** [|Observation selection bias] ** || The effect of suddenly noticing things that were not noticed previously – and as a result wrongly assuming that the frequency has increased. ||
 * ** [|Observer-expectancy effect] ** || When a researcher expects a given result and therefore unconsciously manipulates an experiment or misinterprets data in order to find it (see also [|subject-expectancy effect] ). ||
 * ** [|Omission bias] ** || The tendency to judge harmful actions as worse, or less moral, than equally harmful omissions (inactions). [|[55]] ||
 * ** [|Optimism bias] ** || The tendency to be over-optimistic, overestimating favorable and pleasing outcomes (see also [|wishful thinking], [|valence effect] , [|positive outcome bias] ). [|[56]][|[57]] ||
 * ** [|Ostrich effect] ** || Ignoring an obvious (negative) situation. ||
 * ** [|Outcome bias] ** || The tendency to judge a decision by its eventual outcome instead of based on the quality of the decision at the time it was made. ||
 * ** [|Overconfidence effect] ** || Excessive confidence in one's own answers to questions. For example, for certain types of questions, answers that people rate as "99% certain" turn out to be wrong 40% of the time. [|[23]][|[58]][|[59]][|[60]] ||
 * ** [|Pareidolia] ** || A vague and random stimulus (often an image or sound) is perceived as significant, e.g., seeing images of animals or faces in clouds, the [|man in the moon], and hearing non-existent [|hidden messages] on [|records played in reverse] . ||
 * ** [|Pessimism bias] ** || The tendency for some people, especially those suffering from [|depression], to overestimate the likelihood of negative things happening to them. ||
 * ** [|Planning fallacy] ** || The tendency to underestimate task-completion times. [|[48]] ||
 * ** [|Post-purchase rationalization] ** || The tendency to persuade oneself through rational argument that a purchase was a good value. ||
 * ** [|Pro-innovation bias] ** || The tendency to have an excessive optimism towards an invention or innovation's usefulness throughout society, while often failing to identify its limitations and weaknesses. ||
 * ** [|Pseudocertainty effect] ** || The tendency to make risk-averse choices if the expected outcome is positive, but make risk-seeking choices to avoid negative outcomes. [|[61]] ||
 * ** [|Reactance] ** || The urge to do the opposite of what someone wants you to do out of a need to resist a perceived attempt to constrain your freedom of choice (see also [|Reverse psychology] ). ||
 * ** [|Reactive devaluation] ** || Devaluing proposals only because they are purportedly originated with an adversary. ||
 * ** [|Recency illusion] ** || The illusion that a word or language usage is a recent innovation when it is in fact long-established (see also frequency illusion). ||
 * ** [|Restraint bias] ** || The tendency to overestimate one's ability to show restraint in the face of temptation. ||
 * ** [|Rhyme as reason effect] ** || Rhyming statements are perceived as more truthful. A famous example being used in the O.J Simpson trial with the defense's use of the phrase "If the gloves don't fit, then you must acquit." ||
 * ** [|Risk compensation] / Peltzman effect** || The tendency to take greater risks when perceived safety increases. ||
 * ** [|Selective perception] ** || The tendency for expectations to affect perception. ||
 * ** [|Semmelweis reflex] ** || The tendency to reject new evidence that contradicts a paradigm. [|[27]] ||
 * ** [|Social comparison bias] ** || The tendency, when making hiring decisions, to favour potential candidates who don't compete with one's own particular strengths. [|[62]] ||
 * ** [|Social desirability bias] ** || The tendency to over-report socially desirable characteristics or behaviours in one self and under-report socially undesirable characteristics or behaviours. [|[63]] ||
 * ** [|Status quo bias] ** || The tendency to like things to stay relatively the same (see also loss aversion, endowment effect, and system justification). [|[64]][|[65]] ||
 * ** [|Stereotyping] ** || Expecting a member of a group to have certain characteristics without having actual information about that individual. ||
 * ** [|Subadditivity effect] ** || The tendency to judge probability of the whole to be less than the probabilities of the parts. [|[66]] ||
 * ** [|Subjective validation] ** || Perception that something is true if a subject's belief demands it to be true. Also assigns perceived connections between coincidences. ||
 * ** [|Survivorship bias] ** || Concentrating on the people or things that "survived" some process and inadvertently overlooking those that didn't because of their lack of visibility. ||
 * ** [|Time-saving bias] ** || Underestimations of the time that could be saved (or lost) when increasing (or decreasing) from a relatively low speed and overestimations of the time that could be saved (or lost) when increasing (or decreasing) from a relatively high speed. ||
 * **Unit bias** || The tendency to want to finish a given unit of a task or an item. Strong effects on the consumption of food in particular. [|[67]] ||
 * ** [|Well travelled road effect] ** || Underestimation of the duration taken to traverse oft-traveled routes and overestimation of the duration taken to traverse less familiar routes. ||
 * ** [|Zero-risk bias] ** || Preference for reducing a small risk to zero over a greater reduction in a larger risk. ||
 * **Zero-sum heuristic** || Intuitively judging a situation to be zero-sum (i.e., that gains and losses are correlated). Derives from the zero-sum game in [|game theory], where wins and losses sum to zero. [|[68]][|[69]] The frequency with which this bias occurs may be related to the [|social dominance orientation] personality factor. ||
 * ~ Name ||~ Description ||
 * ** [|Actor-observer bias] ** || The tendency for explanations of other individuals' behaviors to overemphasize the influence of their personality and underemphasize the influence of their situation (see also Fundamental attribution error), and for explanations of one's own behaviors to do the opposite (that is, to overemphasize the influence of our situation and underemphasize the influence of our own personality). ||
 * ** [|Defensive attribution hypothesis] ** || Attributing more blame to a harm-doer as the outcome becomes more severe or as personal or situational [|similarity] to the victim increases. ||
 * ** [|Dunning–Kruger effect] ** || An effect in which incompetent people fail to realise they are incompetent because they lack the skill to distinguish between competence and incompetence. Actual competence may weaken self-confidence, as competent individuals may falsely assume that others have an equivalent understanding. [|[70]] ||
 * ** [|Egocentric bias] ** || Occurs when people claim more responsibility for themselves for the results of a joint action than an outside observer would credit them. ||
 * ** [|Extrinsic incentives bias] ** || An exception to the //fundamental attribution error//, when people view others as having (situational) extrinsic motivations and (dispositional) intrinsic motivations for oneself ||
 * ** [|False consensus effect] ** || The tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which others agree with them. [|[71]] ||
 * ** [|Forer effect] **(aka Barnum effect) || The tendency to give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. For example, [|horoscopes] . ||
 * ** [|Fundamental attribution error] ** || The tendency for people to over-emphasize personality-based explanations for behaviors observed in others while under-emphasizing the role and power of situational influences on the same behavior (see also actor-observer bias, [|group attribution error], positivity effect, and [|negativity effect] ). [|[72]] ||
 * ** [|Group attribution error] ** || The biased belief that the characteristics of an individual group member are reflective of the group as a whole or the tendency to assume that group decision outcomes reflect the preferences of group members, even when information is available that clearly suggests otherwise. ||
 * ** [|Halo effect] ** || The tendency for a person's positive or negative traits to "spill over" from one personality area to another in others' perceptions of them (see also [|physical attractiveness stereotype] ). [|[73]] ||
 * ** [|Illusion of asymmetric insight] ** || People perceive their knowledge of their peers to surpass their peers' knowledge of them. [|[74]] ||
 * ** [|Illusion of external agency] ** || When people view self-generated preferences as instead being caused by insightful, effective and benevolent agents ||
 * ** [|Illusion of transparency] ** || People overestimate others' ability to know them, and they also overestimate their ability to know others. ||
 * ** [|Illusory superiority] ** || Overestimating one's desirable qualities, and underestimating undesirable qualities, relative to other people. (Also known as "Lake Wobegon effect," "better-than-average effect," or "superiority bias"). [|[75]] ||
 * ** [|Ingroup bias] ** || The tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others they perceive to be members of their own groups. ||
 * ** [|Just-world phenomenon] ** || The tendency for people to believe that the world is just and therefore people "get what they deserve." ||
 * ** [|Moral luck] ** || The tendency for people to ascribe greater or lesser moral standing based on the outcome of an event ||
 * ** [|Naive cynicism] ** || Expecting more //egocentric bias// in others than in oneself ||
 * ** [|Outgroup homogeneity bias] ** || Individuals see members of their own group as being relatively more varied than members of other groups. [|[76]] ||
 * ** [|Projection bias] ** || The tendency to unconsciously assume that others (or one's future selves) share one's current emotional states, thoughts and values. [|[77]] ||
 * ** [|Self-serving bias] ** || The tendency to claim more responsibility for successes than failures. It may also manifest itself as a tendency for people to evaluate ambiguous information in a way beneficial to their interests (see also [|group-serving bias] ). [|[78]] ||
 * ** [|Shared information bias] ** || Known as the tendency for group members to spend more time and energy discussing information that all members are already familiar with (i.e., shared information), and less time and energy discussing information that only some members are aware of (i.e., unshared information). [|[79]] ||
 * ** [|System justification] ** || The tendency to defend and bolster the status quo. Existing social, economic, and political arrangements tend to be preferred, and alternatives disparaged sometimes even at the expense of individual and collective self-interest. (See also status quo bias.) ||
 * ** [|Trait ascription bias] ** || The tendency for people to view themselves as relatively variable in terms of personality, behavior, and mood while viewing others as much more predictable. ||
 * ** [|Ultimate attribution error] ** || Similar to the fundamental attribution error, in this error a person is likely to make an internal attribution to an entire group instead of the individuals within the group. ||
 * ** [|Worse-than-average effect] ** || A tendency to believe ourselves to be worse than others at tasks which are difficult [|[80]] ||